The models show when FBBB is used to classify for marijuana, which has a low THC:CBD ratio, there is a decrease in specificity that causes these marijuana-type samples to be misclassified as hemp. When marijuana-type samples with THC:CBD <2 were removed from the LDA models, FBBB has high sensitivity and specificity for marijuana-type cannabis with a high THC:CBD ratio and shows a clear separation from hemp samples. In addition, the combination of RGB values from the fluorescence images and color images provided the most reliable model that correctly classified all 7 marijuana samples and 12 hemp samples. This study has demonstrated the specificity and sensitivity of the FBBB reaction with THC compared with other cannabinoids. The combination of the red color and fluorescence of the FBBB + THC chromophore/fluorophore allows THC-rich cannabis to be distinguished from CBD rich cannabis. ElSohly et. al. analyzed confiscated cannabis in the US between 2009 and 2019 and found that the average THC:CBD ratio of the cannabis plants was found to be above 20 across the decade. Although false negative results can be obtained for samples with a low THC:CBD ratio, FBBB is useful in discriminating between marijuanatype cannabis with a high THC:CBD ratio from hemp-type cannabis. Since most illicit cannabis grow equipment in the US contains a high THC:CBD ratio, FBBB is applicable to field use as a presumptive test to distinguish between cannabis types. When compared to the other field tests on the market, FBBB is more selective as well, producing less false positive results among herbs, spices, and hops. This test uses a small volume of reagents and can be performed on a 3.5 mm PSPME substrate, which simplifies the analysis while allowing for portability.

Finally, the observation time window for the FBBB + cannabinoids is longer than for other competing techniques such as the 4-AP reaction that has an observation window of a few minutes. Future work will include validating the FBBB test by conducting an interlaboratory study with several operational laboratories and increasing the number of authentic cannabis samples of known cannabinoid concentrations. Future studies will also focus on better defining the analytical figures of merit for the reaction including LOD and the THC:CBD range in which ambiguous or false negative results are obtained using this test and the potential to conduct a concentration determination of the THC is some samples. FBBB will also be validated for field use, assessing operational parameters such as chemical stability of the reactants, storage limitations and the possibility of incorporating a portable spectrometer to determine the fluorescence spectra of the chromophore/fluorophore in the field. Additional studies will be conducted to determine how the FBBB test performs in comparison with, and in combination with, existing presumptive cannabis tests, such as the 4-AP test. As of April 2021, 36 states and the District of Columbia have passed laws that allow for the medical use of marijuana and 16 states and the District of Columbia have passed laws that legalize recreational use of marijuana; more states appear to be heading toward similar legislation. Even though the debate on marijuana’s safety and benefits continues to be fiercely debated , public opinion on the legalization of marijuana has grown more favorable. In 1969 only 12% of the adult population supported legalization compared to 66% in 2019. Among the 18-34-year-old subgroup, support was even higher with 81% favoring legalization in 2019. With this data, it is not surprising that marijuana use has also gradually increased with college age adults, 18–25 years, experiencing the greatest growth from 17.3% in 2002 to 22.1% in 2018. Furthermore, in their examination of national survey results on drug use from 1975 to 2016, Schulenberg and colleagues noted historical trends of marijuana use increased at different levels and for different lengths of time across younger ages, 19–20 years through 29–30 years, with almost all age groups reporting increasing prevalence from 2010 onward.

Earlier studies have shown numerous negativeassociations with marijuana use and academic success indicators such as lower GPA, reduced studying time, late assignments, missing class and discontinuous enrollment in college. Furthermore, the heavier the marijuana use, the more likely negative outcomes were reported. Importantly, the majority of the studies investigating negative impacts and marijuana use in college students are prior to legalization of recreational marijuana, and even less of this data are available on a diverse student population. Adverse high-risk behaviors, including tobacco use, binge drinking and use of other illicit drugs have also been associated with marijuana use in college students . Using marijuana and tobacco at the same time may lead to increased exposure to harmful chemicals, causing greater risks to the lungs, and the cardiovascular system. According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, alcohol and marijuana were substances most frequently used by college students. In addition, among users of both substances, alcohol and marijuana have been shown to be more concurrently used rather than alone. Another area of concern is sexual risk behaviors. Marijuana use, among adolescents and young adults, has been associated with sexual risk behaviors and outcomes, including inconsistent condom use, multiple sexual partners, and STI diagnoses. Bryan and colleagues showed that marijuana use increased the likelihood of intercourse due to reduced inhibitions and effects on cognitive ability. In addition, they noted a decreasing ability to negotiate and carry out condom use. Furthermore, Metrik and colleagues found that both alcohol and marijuana use were independently correlated with greater odds of having casual sexual intercourse. Data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health also showed that among 18-24-year-old respondents, Blacks and Hispanics experienced more marijuana use disorder than other ethnic groups. Keyes and her colleagues found similar results when examining race/ethnicity in Monitoring the Future data from 2006 to 2015, pre-legalization. However, they note the importance of a deeper look into diverse populations as they also found confounding factors of class size for Black high school seniors and urban setting for Hispanic seniors. With legalization legislation in the United States beginning only a decade ago and in California as recently as 2016, there is limited data available on high-risk health behaviors and marijuana use postlegalization in college-aged students.

Even more limited are those that focus on ethnically diverse college groups . Therefore, this study examined health behaviors in marijuana-users post legalization in a diverse, urban college population in Southern California. Specifically, we investigated alcohol and tobacco use, as well as sexual behaviors among marijuana-users compared with non-users post legalization in a racially/ethnically diverse college group. We hypothesize that marijuana-users will partake in increased high-risk behaviors compared with non-users, and that use will vary by race/ethnicity. Our findings post legalization of marijuana for recreational use clearly demonstrated a higher prevalence of high-risk behaviors such as alcohol use, tobacco use, drinking and driving and sexual activities among college students who use marijuana compared to those who do not. Specifically, adjusting for all covariates in the logistic regression model, younger respondents were found to be more likely to be marijuana users; similarly, students earning D grades were 1.68 times more likely to use marijuana compared to those earning A grades . Compared to APIs, Whites were 53% more likely and the Other race/ethnicity category were twice as likely to be marijuana users. These findings are consistent with similar studies examining risktaking behaviors among marijuana-users for recreational use pre legalization. This study is one of the first to assess marijuana use in an ethnically diverse student population. We found marijuana use was higher among White college students which mirrors most recent national data for 18- 25-year-olds. Interestingly, when examining marijuana-use disorders Pacek and colleagues found African Americans twice as likely to be diagnosed with this condition versus both Whites and Hispanics. Due to small sample size of certain ethnic groups we did not specifically examine marijuana use among Blacks and Native American students. However, we found a strong relationship between the Other race/ethnicity category, , and marijuana use, suggesting higher use of marijuana in this respective population. Nonetheless, further studies are needed with larger samples of African Americans and Native Americans. While we found marijuana use slightly higher among males than females, it was not a statistically significant difference. National data shows men age 18 to 25 are more likely to use marijuana at least once a month compared to women. However, when analyzing a 15-year trend, Johnson and colleagues found that the male-female differences in marijuana use decreased over time; with the most recent SAMSA data indicating among 18-25 year-olds, males are only slightly higher in reported marijuana use than females. In addition, we found an inverse relationship between academic performance and marijuana use; specifically, adjusting for all covariates in the logistic regression model, younger respondents were found to be more likely to use marijuana; similarly, students earning D grades were 1.68 times more likely to use marijuana compared to those earning A grades. This is similar to the findings from Arria and colleagues. Their research found that not only did marijuana-users have lower grade point averages, but also skipped classes more and took longer to graduate college. Whether these negative outcomes are related to poor academic behaviors or poor cognitive function or both continues to be researched. In a review of the literature, Crane and colleagues found that numerous studies continue to demonstrate the negative effect of cannabis on learning and memory, in addition to deficits in attention, concentration, and abstract reasoning. With regard to alcohol use, our findings indicate that increased alcohol use is also associated with an increase in marijuana use. Recent studies exploring the role of marijuana policies on alcohol and marijuana use, vertical grow system show varying results. Some hypothesize that alcohol use may decrease as marijuana becomes legalized for recreation use as it would substitute for alcohol.

Others posit that with more liberal marijuana policies, both marijuana and alcohol use will increase as they may complement each other. A critical review of the literature provides some evidence of both. The researchers of these studies note the issue is complex, suggesting likely factors such as how long the policy has been in place, how it is implemented as well as the age of users, play a role. Tobacco was another substance we found marijuana smokers more likely to use. This was a significant finding as tobacco users were four times more likely to be marijuana users compared with non-tobacco users. Interestingly, some researchers have found that using nicotine with cannabis together can intensify the effects of cannabis. In their study Ream and colleagues found participants reported smoking cigarettes directly after using marijuana to enhance the intoxication. This may be due to the close overlapping in the distribution of brain receptors for nicotine and cannabis.The relationship of smoking and marijuana use is supported by findings that show marijuana-users who also smoke cigarettes have increased risk of marijuana relapse when they are trying to quit. As is the case with many substances, marijuana impairs judgement; therefore, we found a positive association between high-risk sexual behavior and marijuana use. Our univariate analyses also showed that marijuana-users in this study indicated they never use a condom during vaginal intercourse 25% of the time compared to only 14% of the time for non-users. These findings are similar to data showing marijuana use associated with non-use of condoms and having a higher number of sexual partners . Some researchers assert this association may be due to marijuana use potentially increasing sexual desire or sensation while others believe decreased cognition and increased disinhibition are contributing factors. Since the outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 , individuals and societies have faced various and serious health, social and economic challenges and uncertainties. By early September 2021, WHO reports that there had been more than 218 million confirmed COVID-19 cases and 4.5 million related deaths globally. For Germany, the figures to date are 3.9 million confirmed COVID-19 cases and over 92,000 deaths. The economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic cannot yet be quantified conclusively. However, there were significant declines in gross domestic product , particularly at the beginning of 2020. GDP in Germany, for example, fell by 4.9% compared with the previous year. In addition, the German government has approved 7.3 billion Euros of COVID-19-related emergency economic aid and 130 billion Euros for economic stimulus measures.